NEW EDITION HIGH SCHOOL
English Grammar & Composition
BY
WREN & MARTIN
(With New Appendices)
REVISED BY
N.D.V. PRASADA RAO
S. CHAND
Page i
New Edition
HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND
COMPOSITION
By
P.C. WREN, MA. (OXON) and H. MARTIN, M.A. (OXON), O.B.E.
Revised By
N.D.V. PRASADA RAO, M.A., D.T.E., Ph.D.
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Page iii
PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION
Wren and Martin's monumental work High School English Grammar and Composition
now appears in two editions. One is a de luxe edition, illustrated in full-colour, and the
other is an ordinary edition without illustrations.
The material in the book has been further updated where called for. It has been felt
necessary in particular to revise some material in the chapters dealing with adjectives,
active and passive voice, articles and prepositions. Appendix I, which deals with
American English, has been expanded. Appendix II has been replaced with a newer set of
tests covering the important areas of grammar.
It was in the year 1972 that the shrewd visionary Mr. Shyam Lai Gupta obtained the
permission of Manecji Cooper Education Trust for the revision of this book and
commissioned me to revise it thoroughly. The revised edition came out in 1973 and was
well received. One of the main features of the revised edition was the addition of a great
deal of new material (such as the three chapters on structures) based on the new
developments in the study of English structure and usage. Subsequently the book was
revised every four or five years and most extensively in 1999.
Unlike many traditional grammar books, the book in the present form helps the student to
use the language as well as giving detailed information about the language. It provides
ample guidance and practice in sentence building, correct usage, comprehension, written
composition and other allied areas so as to equip the student with the ability to
communicate effectively in English.
It is gratifying to learn that this classic work, though primarily intended for use in the
Indian subcontinent, is also used in Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore, Mauritius, etc. It is
hoped that the book will be found useful in many more countries where English is used as
a second or foreign language.
N.D.V. Prasada Rao
Your Attention Please
In this work, on some pages, the Publishers have stated between parallel lines, “A work
from S. CHAND & COMPANY LTD.” This has been done to establish that this is a
genuine edition of the work.
Publishers
Page iv
CONTENTS
BOOK I. GRAMMAR
CHAPTER -- PAGES
1. THE SENTENCE -- 1
2. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE -- 1
3. THE PHRASE AND THE CLAUSE -- 2
4. PARTS OF SPEECH -- 3
5. THE NOUN: KINDS OF NOUNS -- 5
6. THE NOUN: GENDER -- 8
7. THE NOUN: NUMBER -- 10
8. THE NOUN: CASE -- 15
9. THE ADJECTIVE -- 19
10. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES -- 24
11. ADJECTIVES USED AS NOUNS -- 33
12. POSITION OF THE ADJECTIVES -- 34
13. THE CORRECT USE OF SOME ADJECTIVES -- 34
14. ARTICLES -- 37
15. PERSONAL PRONOUNS -- 43
16. REFLEXIVE AND EMPHATIC PRONOUNS -- 48
17. DEMONSTRATIVE, INDEFINITE AND DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS -- 49
I8. RELATIVE PRONOUNS -- 52
19. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS -- 62
20. THE VERB -- 65
21. VERBS OF INCOMPLETE PREDICATION -- 68
22. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE -- 70
23. MOOD -- 75
24. TENSES: INTRODUCTION -- 78
25. THE USES OF THE PRESENT AND PAST TENSES -- 81
26. THE FUTURE -- 86
27. THE VERB: PERSON AND NUMBER -- 88
28. THE INFINITIVE -- 90
29. THE PARTICIPLE -- 93
30. THE GERUND -- 99
31. IRREGULAR VERBS -- 102
32. AUXILIARIES AND MODALS -- 109
33. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB LOVE -- 115
34. THE ADVERB -- 118
35. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS -- 123
36. FORMATION OF ADVEBS -- 124
37. POSITION OF ADVERBS -- 125
38. THE PREPOSITION -- 127
39. WORDS FOLLOWED BY PREPOSITIONS -- 136
40. THE CONJUNCTION -- 149
41. SOME CONJUNCTIONS AND THEIR USES -- 157
42. THE INTERJECTION -- 163
43. THE SAME WORD USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH -- 163
BOOK II. COMPOSITION
PART I
ANALYSIS, TRANSFORMATION AND SYNTHESIS
1. ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES -- 169-178
Exercise 1-7 -- 170
Page v
2. PHRASES -- 179-185
Adjective Phrases -- 179
Exercises 8-12 -- 179
Adverb Phrases -- 181
Exercises 13-19 -- 182
Noun Phrases -- 184
Exercises 20-22 -- 184
3. CLAUSES -- 185-193
Adverb Clauses -- 185
Exercises 23-26 -- 186
Adjective Clauses -- 188
Exercises 27-30 -- 188
Noun Clauses -- 190
Exercises 31-34 -- 190
Exercises 35-36 -- 192
4. SENTENCES: SIMPLE, COMPOUND AND COMPLEX -- 193-196
Exercise 37 -- 195
5. MORE ABOUT NOUN CLAUSES -- 196-198
Exercises 38-39 -- 197
6. MORE ABOUT ADJECTIVE CLAUSES -- 198-201
Exercises 40-42 -- 200
7. MORE ABOUT ADVERB CLAUSES -- 201-208
Adverb clauses of Time -- 201
Exercise 43 -- 201
Adverb clauses of Place -- 201
Exercise 44 -- 202
Adverb Clauses of Purpose -- 202
Exercise 45 -- 202
Adverb Clauses of Cause or Reason -- 202
Exercise 46 -- 202
Adverb Clauses of Condition -- 202
Exercise 47 -- 203
Adverb Clauses of Result and Consequence -- 203
Exercise 48 -- 204
Adverb Clauses of Comparison -- 204
Exercises 49-50 -- 204
Adverb Clauses of Supposition or Concession -- 204
Exercise 51 -- 205
Exercises 52-55 -- 205
8. ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES (Clause Analysis) -- 208-211
Exercise 56 -- 210
9. ANALYSIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES (Clause Analysis) -- 211-215
Exercise 57 -- 213
Exercise 58 (Miscellaneous) -- 214
10. TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCES -- 215-223
Sentences containing the Adverb "too" -- 215
Exercise 59 -- 215
Interchange of the Degrees of Comparison -- 216
Exercise 60 -- 216
Interchange of Active and Passive Voice -- 217
Exercises 61-63 -- 218
Interchange of Affirmative and Negative sentences -- 219
Exercises 64-65 -- 219
Interchange of Interrogative and Assertive sentences -- 220
Exercises 66-67 -- 220
Interchange of Exclamatory and Assertive sentences -- 221
Exercises 68-69 -- 221
Page vi
Interchange of one Part of Speech for another -- 221
Exercise 70 -- 222
11. TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCES (Contd.) -- 223-239
Conversion of Simple sentences to Compound (Double) sentences -- 223
Exercises 71-72 -- 223
Conversion of Compound (Double) sentences to Simple sentences -- 224
Exercises 73-74 -- 225
Conversion of Simple sentences to Complex -- 226
Exercises 75-78 -- 227
Conversion of Complex sentences to Simple sentences -- 230
Exercises 79-82 -- 230
Conversion of Compound sentences to Complex -- 235
Exercises 83-84 -- 235
Conversion of Complex sentences to Compound -- 237
Exercises 85-86 -- 237
Exercise 87 (Miscellaneous) -- 239
12. SYNTHESIS OF SENTENCES -- 240-246
Combination of two or more Simple sentences into a single Simple sentence -- 240
Exercises 88-93 -- 241
Exercise 94 (Miscellaneous) -- 244
13. SYNTHESIS OF SENTENCES (Contd.) -- 246-248
Combination of two or more Simple sentences into a single Compound sentence -- 246
Exercise 95 -- 247
14. SYNTHESIS OF SENTENCES (Contd.) -- 249-255
Combination of two or more Simple sentences into a single Complex sentence -- 249
Exercises 96-100 -- 250
15. THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES -- 255-258
Exercises 101-103 -- 256
16. DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH -- 258-266
Exercises 104-109 -- 261
PART II
CORRECT USAGE
17. AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH THE SUBJECT -- 267-270
Exercise 110 -- 269
18. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS -- 270-275
Exercises 111-114 -- 273
19. ADJECTIVES -- 275-278
20. VERBS -- 278-282
Exercise 115 -- 281
21. ADVERBS -- 282-284
Exercise 116 -- 283
22. CONJUNCTIONS -- 284-285
23. ORDER OF WORDS -- 285-287
Exercises 117-118 -- 286
24. IDIOMS -- 288-294
25. IDIOMS (Contd.) -- 294-311
26. PUNCTUATION -- 312-319
Exercises 119-122 -- 316
27. SPELLING RULES -- 319-320
28. THE FORMATION OF WORDS -- 321-333
Page vii
29. FIGURES OF SPEECH -- 333-344
Exercise 125 -- 339
PART III
STRUCTURES
30. VERB PATTERNS -- 341-347
Exercise 126 -- 347
31. QUESTION TAGS, SHORT ANSWERS, ETC. ... 347-351
Exercises 127-130 349
32. MORE STRUCTURES -- 351-354
Exercise 131 -- 354
PART IV
WRITTEN COMPOSITION
33. PARAGRAPH-WRITING -- 355-358
Introductory Remarks -- 353
Principles -- 355
Examples -- 356
The Writing of Single Paragraphs -- 357
Exercise 132 -- 358
34. STORY-WRITING -- 359-363
Introductory Remarks -- 359
Hints -- 359
Specimen -- 359
Exercise 133 -- 360
35. REPRODUCTION OF A STORY-POEM -- 364-367
Introductory Remarks -- 363
Hints -- 363
Specimens -- 363
Exercise 134 -- 366
36. LETTER-WRITING -- 367-389
Introductory Remarks -- 367
The form of Letters -- 367
Classification of letters -- 370
Social Letters -- 370
Friendly Letters -- 370
Specimens -- 371
Exercise 135 -- 372
Specimens -- 373
Exercise 136 -- 374
Specimens -- 374
Exercises 137-139 -- 375
Specimens -- 376
Exercises 140-141 -- 378
Notes of Invitations -- 379
Specimens -- 379
Business Letters -- 380
Specimens -- 381
Exercise 142 -- 384
Letters of Application -- 384
Specimens -- 389
Exercise 143 -- 385
Official Letters -- 385
Specimens -- 385
Exercise 144 -- 386
Letters to Newspapers -- 386
Specimens -- 386
Exercise 145 -- 387
Specimens -- 387
Exercise 146 -- 388
Page viii
37. COMPREHENSION -- 389-403
Introductory Remarks -- 389
Specimen -- 389
Exercise 147 -- 390
38. PRECIS-WRITING -- 404-420
Introductory Remarks -- 404
Uses of Precis-Writing -- 404
Method of procedure -- 405
To Sum up -- 408
Specimens -- 408
Exercise 148 -- 409
39. EXPANSION OF PASSAGES -- 420-423
Introductory Remarks -- 420
Method of procedure -- 420
Specimens -- 421
Exercise 149 -- 422
40. ESSAY-WRITING -- 423-436
Introductory Remarks -- 423
Characteristics of a good School Essay -- 424
Classification of Essays -- 425
Hints on Essay-writing -- 426
Method of Collecting Materials -- 427
Bare Outline -- 429
Full Outline -- 430
Writing the Essay -- 430
Specimens -- 432
Exercises 150-151 -- 435
41. AUTOBIOGRAPHIES -- 436-438
Introductory Remarks -- 436
Specimens -- 436
Exercises 152-154 -- 437
42. DIALOGUE-WRITING -- 438-447
Introductory Remarks -- 438
Method of Procedure -- 439
Special Hints -- 439
Specimens -- 440
Exercises 155-162 -- 445
43. THE APPRECIATION OF POETRY -- 447-458
Introductory Remarks -- 447
Specimens -- 454
Exercise 163 -- 456
44. PARAPHRASING -- 459-470
Introductory Remarks -- 459
Uses of Paraphrasing -- 459
Characteristics of a good Paraphrase -- 459
The Paraphrase of Poetry -- 462
Special Hints -- 464
Method of Procedure -- 464
Specimens -- 466
Exercise 164 -- 467
APPENDICES -- 471-482
Appendix -1
Differences between British and American English -- 471
Appendix - II
General Review of Grammar -- 475
An authentic and useful solution of this book entitled. "A Key to Wren and Martin's High
School English Grammar and Composition " is also available,
Page 1
HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR
CHAPTER 1 THE SENTENCE
1. When we speak or write we use words. We generally use these words in groups; as,
Little Jack Homer sat in a corner.
A group of words like this, which makes complete sense, is called
a Sentence.
Kinds of Sentences
2. Sentences are of four kinds:
(1) Those which make statements or assertions; as, Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall.
(2) Those which ask questions; as Where do you live?
(3) Those which express commands, requests, or entreaties; as,
Be quiet.
Have mercy upon us.
(4) Those which express strong feelings; as,
How cold the night is!
What a shame!
A sentence that makes a statement or assertion is called a Declarative or Assertive
sentence.
A sentence that asks a question is called an Interrogative sentence.
A sentence that expresses a command or an entreaty is called an Imperative sentence.
A sentence that expresses strong feeling is called an Exclamatory sentence.
CHAPTER 2
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
3. When we make a sentence:
(1) We name some person or thing; and
(2) Say something about that person or thing.
Page 2
In other words, we must have a subject to speak about and we must say or predicate
something about that subject.
Hence every sentence has two parts:
(1) The part which names the person or thing we are speaking about. This is called the
Subject of the sentence.
(2) The part which tells something about the Subject. This is called the Predicate of the
sentence.
4. The Subject of a sentence usually comes first, but occasionally it is put after the
Predicate; as,
Here comes the bus.
Sweet are the uses of adversity.
5. In Imperative sentences the Subject is left out; as,
Sit down. [Here the Subject You is understood].
Thank him. [Here too the Subject You is understood.]
Exercise in Grammar 1
In the following sentences separate the Subject and the Predicate:
1. The cackling of geese saved Rome.
2. The boy stood on the burning deck.
3. Tubal Cain was a man of might.
4. Stone walls do not make a prison.
5. The singing of the birds delights us.
6. Miss Kitty was rude at the table one day
7. He has a good memory.
8. Bad habits grow unconsciously.
9. The earth revolves round the sun.
10. Nature is the best physician.
11. Edison invented the phonograph.
12. The sea hath many thousand sands.
13. We cannot pump the ocean dry.
14. Borrowed garments never fit well.
15. The early bird catches the worm.
16. All matter is indestructible.
17. Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan.
18. We should profit by experience.
19. All roads lead to Rome.
20. A guilty conscience needs no excuse.
21. The beautiful rainbow soon faded away.
22. No man can serve two masters.
23. A sick room should be well aired.
24. The dewdrops glitter in the sunshine.
25. I shot an arrow into the air.
26. A barking sound the shepherd hears.
27. On the top of the hill lives a hermit.
CHAPTER 3
THE PHRASE AMD THE CLAUSE
6. Examine the group of words “in a corner”. It makes sense, but not complete sense.
Such a group of words, which makes sense, but not complete sense, is called a Phrase.
In the following sentences, the groups of words in italics are Phrases:
The sun rises in the east.
Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall.
There came a giant to my door.
Page 3
It was a sunset of great beauty.
The tops of the mountains were covered with snow.
Show me how to do it.
7. Examine the groups of words in italics in the following sentences:
He has a chain of gold.
He has a chain which is made of gold.
We recognize the first group of words as a Phrase.
The second group of words, unlike the Phrase of gold, contains a Subject (which) and a
Predicate (is made of gold).
Such a group of words which forms part of a sentence, and contains a Subject and a
Predicate, is called a Clause.
In the following sentences, the groups of words in italics are Clauses:
People who pay their debts are trusted.
We cannot start while it is raining.
I think that, you have made a mistake.
CHAPTER 4
PARTS OF SPEECH
8. Words are divided into different kinds or classes, called Parts of Speech, according to
their use; that is, according to the work they do in a sentence. The parts of speech are
eight in number:
1. Noun.
2. Adjective.
3. Pronoun.
4. Verb.
5. Adverb.
6. Preposition.
7. Conjunction.
8. Interjection.
9. A Noun is a word used as the name of a person, place, or thing; as, Akbar was a great
King.
Kolkata is on the Hooghly.
The rose smells sweet.
The sun shines bright.
His courage won him honour.
Note: The word thing includes (i) all objects that we can see, hear, taste, touch, or smell;
and (ii) something that we can think of, but cannot perceive by the senses.
10. An Adjective is a word used to add something to the meaning of a noun; as,
He is a brave boy.
There are twenty boys in this class.
11. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; as,
John is absent, because he is ill.
The book are where you left them
Page 4
12. A Verb is a word used lo express an action or state; as
The girl wrote a letter to her cousin.
Kolkata is a big city.
Iron and copper are useful metals.
13. An Adverb is a word used to add something to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb; as,
He worked the sum quickly.
This flower is very beautiful.
She pronounced the word quite correctly.
14. A Preposition is a word used with a noun or a pronoun to show how the person or
thing denoted by the noun or pronoun stands in relation to something else; as,
There is a cow in the garden.
The girl is fond of music.
A fair little girl sat under a tree.
15. A Conjunction is a word used to join words or sentences; as,
Rama and Hari are cousins.
Two and two make four.
I ran fast, but missed the train.
16. An Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feel ing; as,
Hurrah! We have won the game. Alas! She is dead.
17. Some modern grammars include determiners among the parts of speech. Determiners
are words like a, an, the, this, that, these, those, every, each, some, any, my, his, one, two,
etc., which determine or limit the meaning of the nouns that follow. In this book, as in
many traditional grammars, all determiners except a, an and the are classed among
adjectives.
18. As words are divided into different classes according to the work they do in
sentences, it is clear that we cannot say to which part of speech a word belongs unless we
see it used in a sentence.
They arrived soon after. (Adverb)
They arrived after us. (Preposition)
They arrived after we had left. (Conjunction)
From the above examples we see that the same word can be used as different parts of
speech.
Exercise in Grammar 2
Name the part of speech of each italicized word in the following sentences, giving in each
case your reason for the classification:
1. Still waters run deep.
2. He still lives in that house
3. After the storm comes the calm
4. The after effects of the drug are bad.
5. The up train is late.
6. It weights about a pound.
Page 5
7. He told us all about the battle.
8. He was only a yard off me.
9. Suddenly one of the wheels came off.
10. Mohammedans fast in the month of Ramzan.
11. He kept the fast for a week.
12. He is on the committee.
13. Let us move on.
14. Sit down and rest a while.
15. I will watch while you sleep.
16. They while away their evenings with books and games.
A work from S. CHAND & COMPANY LTD.
CHAPTER 5
THE NOUN: KINDS OF NOUNS
19. A Noun is a word used as the name of a person, place or thing.
Note: The word thing is used to mean anything that we can think of.
20. Look at the following sentence:
Asoka was a wise king.
The noun Asoka refers to a particular king, but the noun king might be applied to any
other king as well as to Asoka. We call Asoka a Proper Noun, and king a Common Noun.
Similarly:
Sita is a Proper Noun, while girl is a Common Noun.
Hart is a Proper Noun, while boy is a Common Noun.
Kolkata is a Proper Noun, while city is a Common Noun.
India is a Proper Noun, while country is a Common Noun.
The word girl is a Common Noun, because it is a name common to all girls, while Sita is
a Proper Noun because it is the name of a particular girl.
Def. - A Common Noun is a name given in common to every person or thing of the same
class or kind.
[Common here means shared by all.]
Def. - A Proper Noun is the name of some particular person or place,
[Proper means one's own. Hence a Proper Name is a person's own name.]
Note 1 - Proper Nouns are always written with a capital letter at the beginning.
Note 2 - Proper Nouns are sometimes used as Common Nouns; as,
1. He was the Lukman (= the wisest man) of his age.
2. Kalidas is often called the Shakespeare (= the greatest dramatist) of India.
Common Nouns include what are called Collective Nouns and Abstract Nouns
Page 6
21. A Collective Noun is the name of a number (or collection) of persons or things taken
together and spoken of as one whole; as,
Crowd, mob, team, flock, herd, army, fleet, jury, family, nation, parliament, committee.
A fleet = a collection of ships or vessels.
An army = a collection of soldiers.
A crowd = a collection of people.
The police dispersed the crowd.
The French army was defeated at Waterloo.
The jury found the prisoner guilty.
A herd of cattle is passing.
22. An Abstract Noun is usually the name of a quality, action, or state considered apart
from the object to which it belongs; as.
Quality - Goodness, kindness, whiteness, darkness, hardness, brightness, honesty,
wisdom, bravery.
Action - Laughter, theft, movement, judgment, hatred.
State - Childhood, boyhood, youth, slavery, sleep, sickness, death, poverty.
The names of the Arts and Science (e.g., grammar, music, chemistry, etc.) are also
Abstract Nouns.
[We can speak of a brave soldier, a strong man, a beautiful flower. But we can also think
of these qualities apart from any particular person or thing, and speak of bravery,
strength, beauty by themselves. So also we can speak of what persons do or feel apart
from the persons themselves, and give it a name. The word abstract means drawn off.]
23. Abstract Nouns are formed:
(1) From Adjectives; as,
Kindness from kind; honesty from honest.
[Most abstract nouns are formed thus.]
(2) From Verbs: as,
Obedience from obey; growth from grow.
(3) From Common Nouns; as,
Childhood from child; slavery from slave.
24. Another classification of nouns is whether they are “countable” or “uncountable”.
Countable nouns (or countables) are the names of objects, people, etc. that we can count,
e.g., book, pen, apple, boy, sister, doctor, horse.
Uncountable nouns (or uncountables) are the names of things which we cannot count,
e.g., milk, oil, sugar, gold, honesty. They mainly denote substances and abstract things.
Countable nouns have plural forms while uncountable nouns do not. For example, we say
“books” but we cannot say “milks”.
Exercise in Grammar 3
Point out the Nouns in the following sentences, and say whether they are Common,
Proper, Collective or Abstract:
Page 7
1. The crowd was very big.
2. Always speak the truth.
3. We all love honesty.
4. Our class consists of twenty pupils.
5. The elephant has great strength.
6. Solomon was famous for his wisdom.
7. Cleanliness is next to godliness.
8. We saw a fleet of ships in the harbour.
9. The class is studying grammar.
10. The Godavary overflows its banks every year.
11. A committee of five was appointed.
12. Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of India.
13. The soldiers were rewarded for their bravery.
14.Without health there is no happiness.
15. He gave me a bunch of grapes.
16. I recognized your voice at once.
17. Our team is better than theirs.
18. Never tell a lie.
19. Wisdom is better than strength.
20. He sets a high value on his time.
21. I believe in his innocence.
22. This room is thirty feet in length.
23. I often think of the happy days of childhood.
24. The streets of some of our cities are noted for their crookedness.
25. What is your verdict, gentlemen of the jury?
Exercise in Composition 4
Write the Collective Nouns used to describe a number of
(1) Cattle;
(2) Soldiers;
(3) Sailors.
Write the qualities that belong to boys who are
(1) Lazy;
(2) Cruel;
(3) Brave;
(4) Foolish.
Exercise in Composition 5
Form Abstract Nouns from the following Adjectives:
Long,
young,
humble,
decent,
cruel,
bitter,
strong,
true,
short,
prudent,
dark,
deep,
wide,
wise,
good,
vacant,
sweet,
human,
broad,
free,
proud,
brave,
novel,
quick,
high,
poor,
just,
vain,
sane,
ignorant.
Form Abstract Nouns from the following Verbs:
Laugh,
obey,
live,
expect,
excel,
know,
steal.
Believe,
Serve,
Hate,
Please,
Act,
Starve,
Occupy,
Choose,
Move,
Conceal,
Seize,
Flatter,
Depart,
Persevere,
Defend,
Think,
Protect,
Advise,
Punish,
Die,
Succeed,
Free,
See,
Judge,
Pursue,
Relieve,
Converse,
Discover.
Form Abstract Nouns from the following Common Nouns:
King,
man,
thief,
woman,
bankrupt,
infant,
owner,
rogue,
regent,
author,
mother,
agent,
hero,
beggar,
coward,
priest,
boy,
bond,
pirate,
pilgrim,
friend,
caption,
rascal,
patriot,
glutton.
Page 8
CHAPTER 6
THE NOUN: GENDER
25. You know that living beings are of either the male or the female sex. Now compare
the words in the following pairs:
Boy (Lion, Hero, Cock-sparrow)
Girl (Lioness, Heroine, Hen-sparrow)
What do you notice?
The first word of each pair is the name of a male animal.
The second word of each pair is the name of a female animal.
A noun that denotes a male animal is said to be of the Masculine Gender. [Gender comes
from Latin genus, kind or sort.]
A noun that denotes a female animal is said to be of the Feminine Gender.
26. A noun that denotes either a male or a female is said to be of the Common Gender; as
Parent, child, friend, pupil, servant, thief, relation, enemy, cousin, person, orphan,
student, baby, monarch, neighbour, infant.
27. A noun that denotes a thing that is neither male nor female (i.e., thing without life) is
said to be of the Neuter Gender; as,
Book, pen, room, tree.
[Neater means neither, that is, neither male nor female]
It will be thus seen that in Modern English the Gender of a noun is entirely a matter of
sex or the absence of sex. It has nothing to do with the form of a noun, which determines
its gender in many other languages, e.g., in Urdu where bagiche is masculine and lakri is
feminine.
28. Objects without life are often personified, that is, spoken of as if they were living
beings. We then regard them as males or females.
The Masculine Gender is often applied to objects remarkable for strength and violence;
as,
The Sun, Summer, Winter, Time, Death,
The sun sheds his beams on rich and poor alike.
The Feminine Gender is sometimes applied to objects remarkable for beauty, gentleness,
and gracefulness; as,
The Moon, the Earth, Spring, Autumn, Nature, Liberty, Justice, Mercy, Peace, Hope,
Charity.
The moon has hidden her face behind a cloud.
Spring has spread her mantle of green over the earth.
Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war.
This use is most common in poetry but certain nouns are personified in nrose too. A shin
is often spoken of as she; as,
The ship lost her boats in the storm.
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Ways of Forming the Feminine of Nouns
29. There are three ways of forming the Feminine of Nouns:
(1) By using an entirely different word; as
Masculine -- Feminine
Bachelor -- maid, spinster
Boy -- girl
Brother -- sister
Buck -- doe
Bull (or ox) -- cow
Bullock -- heifer
Cock -- hen
Colt -- filly
Dog -- bitch
Drake -- duck
Drone -- bee
Earl -- countess
Father -- mother
Gander -- goose
Gentleman -- lady
Hart -- roe
Horse -- mare
Husband -- wife
King -- queen
Lord -- lady
Man -- woman
Monk (or friar) -- nun
Nephew -- niece
Papa -- mamma
Ram -- ewe
Sir -- madam
Son -- daughter
Stag -- hind
Uncle -- aunt
Wizard -- witch
(2) By adding a syllable (-ess, -ine, -trix, -a, etc) as,
Masculine -- Feminine
Author -- authoress
Baron -- baroness
Count -- countess
Giant -- giantess
Heir -- heiress
Host -- hostess
Jew -- Jewess
Lion -- lioness
Manager -- manageress
Mayor -- mayoress
Patron -- patroness
Peer -- peeress
Poet -- poetess
Priest -- priestess
Prophet -- prophetess
Shepherd -- shepherdess
Steward -- stewardess
Viscount -- viscountess
[Note that in the following -ess is added after dropping the vowel of the masculine
ending]
Masculine -- Feminine
Actor -- actress
Benefactor -- benefactress
Conductor -- conductress
Enchanter -- enchantress
Founder -- foundress
Hunter -- huntress
Instructor -- instructress
Negro -- negress
Abbot -- abbess
Duke -- duchess
Emperor -- empress
Preceptor -- preceptress
Prince -- princess
Songster -- songstress
Tempter -- temptress
Seamster -- seamstress
Tiger -- tigress
Traitor -- traitress
Waiter -- waitress
Master -- mistress
Murderer -- murderess
Sorcerer -- sorceress
Note:- The suffix -ess is the commonest suffix used to form feminine nouns, from the
masculine, and is the only one which we now use in forming a new feminine noun.
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Masculine -- Feminine
Hero -- heroine
Testator -- testatrix
Czar -- czarina
Sultan -- sultana
Signor -- signora
Fox -- vixen
(3) By placing a word before or after; as,
Masculine -- Feminine
Grandfather -- grandmother
Greatuncle -- greataunt
Manservant -- maidservant
Landlord -- landlady
milkman -- milkwoman
peacock -- peahen
salesman -- saleswoman
washerman -- washerwoman
CHAPTER 7
THE NOUN: NUMBER
30. Notice the change of form in the second word of each pair:
Tree (Box, Fox, Man)
Trees (Boxes, Oxen, Men)
The first word of each pair denotes one thing, the second word of each pair denotes more
than one.
A Noun that denotes one person or thing, is said to be in the Singular Number; as,
Boy, girl, cow, bird, tree, book, pen.
A Noun that denotes more than one person or thing, is said to be in the Plural Number;
as,
Boys, girls, cows, birds, trees, books, pens.
Thus there are two Numbers in English-the Singular and the Plural.
A work from S. CHAND & COMPANY LTD.
How Plurals are Formed
31. (i) The Plural of nouns is generally formed by adding -s to the singular ; as,
boy, boys;
pen, pens;
girl, girls;
desk, desks;
book, books;
cow, cows.
(ii) But Nouns ending in -s, -sh, -ch (soft), or -x form the plural by adding -es to the
singular; as,
class, classes;
kiss, kisses;
dish, dishes;
brush, brushes;
match, matches;
watch, watches;
branch, branches;
tax, taxes;
box, boxes.
(iii) Most Nouns ending in -o also form the plural by adding -es to the singular ; as,
buffalo, buffaloes;
mango, mangoes;
hero, heroes;
potato, potatoes;
cargo, cargoes,
echo, echoes;
negro, negroes;
volcano, valcanoes.
(iv) A few nouns ending in -o merely add -s; as,
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dynamo, dynamos;
solo, solos;
ratio, ratios;
canto, cantos;
memento, mementos;
quarto, quartos;
piano, pianos;
photo, photos;
stereo, siereos.
kilo, kilos;
logo, logos;
commando, commandos
(v) Nouns ending in -y, preceded by a consonant, form their plural by changing -y into -i
and adding -es; as,
baby, babies;
lady, ladies;
city, cities;
army, armies;
story, stories;
pony, ponies.
(vi) The following nouns ending in -f or -fe form their plural by changing -for -fe into v
and adding -es ; as,
thief, thieves;
wife, wives;
wolf, wolves;
life, lives;
calf, calves;
leaf, leaves;
loaf, loaves;
knife, knives;
shelf, shelves,
half, halves;
elf, elves;
self, selves;
sheaf, sheaves.
The nouns dwarf, hoof, scarf and wharf take either -s or -ves in the plural.
dwarfs or dwarves;
hoofs or hooves;
scarfs or scarves;
wharfs or wharves
Other words ending in -for -fe add -s; as,
chief, chiefs;
safe, safes;
proof, proofs
gulf, gulfs;
cliff, cliffs;
handkerchief, handkerchiefs
32. A few nouns form their plural by changing the inside vowel of the singlar; as,
man, men;
woman, women;
foot, feet;
tooth, teeth;
goose, geese;
mouse, mice;
louse, lice.
33. There are a few nouns that form their plural by adding -en to the singular; as, ox,
oxen; child, children.
The plural offish is fish or fishes. The form fishes is less usual.
34. Some nouns have the singular and the plural alike; as,
Swine, sheep, deer; cod, trout, salmon; aircraft, spacecraft, series, species.
Pair, dozen, score, gross, hundred, thousand (when used after numerals),
I bought three dozen oranges.
Some people reach the age of three score and ten.
The sari cost me five thousand rupees.
Stone, hundredweight.
He weighs above nine stone.
Twenty hundredweight make one ton.
35. Some nouns are used only in the plural.
(1) Names of instruments which have two parts forming a kind of pair; as,
Bellows, scissors, tongs, pincers, spectacles.
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(2) Names of certain articles of dress; as,
Trousers, drawers, breeches, jeans, tights, shorts, pyjamas.
(3) Certain other nouns; as,
Annals, thanks, proceeds (of a sale), tidings, environs, nuptials, obsequies, assets, chatels.
36. Some nouns originally singular are now generally used in the plural; as,
Alms, riches, eaves.
Riches do many things.
37. The following nouns look plural but are in fact singular:
(1) Names of subjects
mathematics, physics, electronics, etc.
(2) The word news
(3) Names of some common diseases
measles, mumps, rickets
(4) Names of some games
billiards, draughts
Mathematics is his favourite study.
No news is good news.
India won by an innings and three runs.
Measles is infectious.
Billiards is my favourite game.
‘Means’ is used either as singular or plural. But when it has the meaning of ‘wealth’ it is
always plural; as,
He succeeded by this means (or, by these means) in passing the examination.
His means are small, but he has incurred no debt.
38. Certain Collective Nouns, though singular in form, are always used as plurals; as,
Poultry, cattle, vermin, people, gentry.
These poultry are mine.
Whose are these cattle?
Vermin destroy our property and carry disease.
Who are those people (= persons)?
There are few gentry in this town.
Note:- As a Common Noun 'people' means a 'nation' and is used in both singular and
plural; as,
The Japanese are a hard-working people.
There are many different peoples in Europe.
39. A Compound Noun generally forms its plural by adding -s to the principal word; as,
Singular -- Plural
Commander-in-chief -- commanders-in-chief
Coat-of-mail -- coats-of-mail
Son-in-Law -- sons-in-law
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Daughter-in-law -- daughters-in-law
Step-son -- step-sons
Step-daughter -- step-daughters
Maid-servant -- maid-servants (but man-servant, plural men-servants)
Passer-by -- passers-by
Looker-on -- lookers-on
Man-of-war -- men-of-war.
We say spoonfuls and handfuls, because spoonful and handful are regarded as one word.
Note that the Proper Nouns Brahman and Mussulman are not compounds of man;
therefore their plurals are Brahmans and Mussulmans.
40. Many nouns taken from foreign languages keep their original plural form; as,
Form Latin-
Erratum, errata; -- formula, formulae (or formulas):
index, indices; -- memorandum, memoranda;
radius, radii; -- terminus, termini (or terminuses).
From Greek-
Axis, axes; -- parenthesis, parentheses;
crisis, crises; -- hypothesis, hypotheses;
basis, bases; -- phenomenon, phenomena;
analysis, analyses; -- criterion, criteria.
From Italian-
Bandit, banditti, (or bandits)
From French-
Madame (madam), mesdames; monsieur, messieurs.
From Hebrew-
Cherub, cherubim (or cherubs); seraph, seraphim (or seraphs).
41. Some nouns have two forms for the plural, each with a some what different meaning.
Singular -- Plural
Brother -- brothers, sons of the same parent.
brethren, members of a society or a community.
Cloth -- cloths, kinds or pieces of cloth, clothes, garments.
Die -- dies, stamps for coining, dice, small cubes used in games.
Index -- indexes, tables of contents to books, indices, signs used in algebra.
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Penny pennies, number of coins, pence, amount in value.
42. Some nouns have two meanings in the singular but only one in the plural.
Singular -- Plural
Light: (1) radiance, (2) a lamp -- Lights: lamps.
People: (1) nation, (2) men and women -- Peoples: nations.
Powder: (1)dust, (2) a dose of medicine in fine grains like dust -- Powders: doses of
medicine.
Practice: (1) habit (2) exercise of a profession -- Practices: habits.
43. Some nouns have one meaning in the singular, two in the plural.
Singular -- Plural
Colour: hue. -- Colours: (1) hues, (2) the flag of a regiment.
Custom: habit. -- Customs: (1) habits, (2) duties levied on imports.
Effect: result -- Effects: (1) results, (2) property.
Manner: method. -- Manners: (1) methods, (2) correct behaviour.
Moral: a moral lesson. -- Morals: (1) moral lessons, (2) conduct
Number: a quantity. -- Numbers: (1) quantities, (2) verses.
Pain: suffering. -- Pains : (1) sufferings, (2) care, exertion.
Premise: proposition -- Premises: (1) propositions; (2) buildings.
Quarter: fourth part. -- Quarters: (1) fourth parts; (2) lodgings.
Spectacle: a sight. -- Spectacles: (1) sights; (2) eye-glasses.
Letter: (1) letter of the alphabet; (2) epistle -- Letters: (1) letters of the alphabet; (2)
epistle; (3) literature.
Ground: (1) earth; (2) reason -- Grounds: (1) enclosed land attached to house. (2) reason;
(2) reasons; (3) dregs.
44. Some nouns have different meanings in the singular and the plural.
Singular -- Plural
Advice: counsel. -- Advices: information.
Air: atmosphere. -- Airs: affected manners.
Good: benefit, well-being. -- Goods: merchandise.
Compass: extent, range. -- Compasses: an instrument for drawing circles.
Respect: regard. -- Respects: compliments.
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Physic: medicine. -- Physics: natural science.
Iron: a kind of metal. -- Irons: fetters.
Force: strength. -- Forces: troops.
45. Letters, figures and other symbols are made plural by adding an apostrophe and s; as,
There are more e's than a's in this page.
Dot your i's and cross your t's.
Add two 5's and four 2's.
46. It is usual to say-
The Miss Smiths. (Singular, Miss Smith.)
47. Abstract Nouns have no plural. They are uncountable.
Hope, charity, love, kindness.
When such words do appear in the plural, they are used as countables; as
Provocations = instances or cases of provocation.
Kindnesses = acts of kindness.
Names of substances are also uncountables and are not therefore used in the plural.
Copper, iron, tin, wood.
When such words are used in the plural, they become countables with changed meanings;
as,
Coppers = copper coins; irons = fetters; tins = cans made of tin; woods = forests.
A work from S. CHAND & COMPANY LTD.
CHAPTER 8
THE NOUN: CASE
48. Examine these sentences:-
1. John threw a stone.
2. The horse kicked the boy.
In sentence 1, the noun John is the Subject. It is the answer to the question, “Who threw a
stone?”
The group of words threw a stone is the Predicate.
The Predicate contains the verb threw.
What did John throw?-A stone. Stone is the object which John threw. The noun stone is
therefore called the Object.
In sentence 2, the noun horse is the Subject. It is the answer to the question, 'Who kicked
the boy?”
The noun boy is the Object. It is the answer to the question, 'Whom did the horse kick?”
49. When a noun (or pronoun) is used as the Subject of a verb, it is said to be in the
Nominative Case.
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When a noun (or pronoun) is used as the Object of a verb, it is said to be in the Objective
(or Accusative) Case.
Note-To find the Nominative, put Who? or What? before the verb.
To find the Accusative put, Whom? or What? before the verb and its subject.
50. A noun which comes after a preposition is also said to be in the Accusative Case; as,
The book is in the desk.
The noun desk is in the Accusative Case, governed by the preposition in.
51. Read the following sentences:-
Hari broke the window. (Object)
The window was broken. (Subject)
It will be seen that Nouns in English have the same form for the Nominative and the
Accusative.
The Nominative generally comes before the verb, and the Accusative after the verb.
Hence they are distinguished by the order of words, or by the sense.
52. Compare:-
1. Rama gave a ball.
2. Rama gave Hari a ball.
In each of these sentences the noun ball is the Object of gave.
In the second sentence we are told that Hari was the person to whom Rama gave a ball.
The noun Hari is called the Indirect Object of the verb gave.
The noun ball, the ordinary Object, is called the Direct Object.
It will be noticed that the position of the Indirect Object is immediately after the verb and
before the Direct Object.
Note:
Rama gave Hari a ball = Rama gave a ball to Hari.
Will you do me a favour? = Will you do a favour to me?
I bought Rama a ball = I bought a ball for Rama.
Fetch the boy a book = Fetch a book for the boy.
She made Ruth a new dress = She made a new dress for Ruth.
Get me a taxi = Get a taxi for me.
We see that the Indirect Object of a verb denotes the person to whom something is given,
or for whom something is done.
53. Examine the sentence:-
This is Ram's umbrella.
Ram's umbrella = the umbrella belonging to Rama.
The form of the noun Rama is changed to Rama's to show ownership of possession. The
Noun Rama’s is therefore said to be in the possessive (or Genitive) Case
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The Possessive answers the question, ‘Whose?’
Whose umbrella? - Rama's.
54. The Possessive Case does not always denote possession. It is used to denote
authorship, origin, kind, etc. as,
Shakespeare's plays = the plays written by Shakespeare.
A mother's love = the love felt by a mother.
The President's speech = the speech delivered by the President.
Mr. Aggarwal's house = the house where Mr. Aggarwal lives.
Ashok's school = the school where Ashok goes.
A children's playground = a playground for children.
A week's holiday = a holiday which lasts a week.
Formation of the Possessive Case
55. (1) When the noun is Singular, the Possessive Case is formed by adding ‘s to the
noun; as,
The boy's book; the king's crown.
Note:- The letter s is omitted in a few words where too many hissing sounds would come
together; as,
For conscience' sake; for goodness' sake;
For justice' sake; for Jesus' sake; Moses' laws.
(2) When the noun is Plural, and ends in s, the Possessive Case is formed by adding only
an apostrophe; as,
Boys' school; girls' school; horses' tails.
(3) When the noun is Plural but does not end in s, the Possessive sign is formed by
adding 's as,
Men's club; children's books.
56. When a noun or a title consists of several words, the Posses sive sign is attached only
to the last word; as,
The King of Bhutan's visit.
The Prime Minister of Mauritius's speech.
57. When two nouns are in apposition, the possessive sign is put to the latter only; as,
That is Tagore the poet's house.
58. Also when two nouns are closely connected, the possessive is put to the latter; as,
Karim and Salim's bakery.
William and Mary's reign.
59. Each of two or more connected nouns implying separate possession must take the
possessive sign; as,
Raja Rao's and R.K. Narayan's novels.
Goldsmith's and Cowper's poems.
Use of the Possessive Case
60. The Possessive Case is now used chiefly with the names of living thing; as,
The Governor’s bodyguard; the lion’s mane.
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So we must say:
The leg of the table [not, the table's leg].
The cover of the book [not, the book's cover].
The roof of the house [not, the house's roof).
61. But the Possessive is used with the names of personified (When n inanimate thing has
ascribed to it the attributes of a person it is said to be personified. (See § 28)) objects; as,
India's heroes; Nature's laws; Fortune's favourite; at duty's call; at death's door.
62. The Possessive is also used with nouns denoting time, space or weight; as,
A day's march; a week's holiday; in a year's time; a stone's throw; a foot's length; a
pound's weight.
63. The following phrases are also in common use:-
At his fingers' ends; for mercy's sake; to his heart's content; at his wit's end; a boat's crew.
64. The possessive of a proper name or of a noun denoting a trade, profession, or
relationship may be used to denote a building or place of business (church, house, school,
college, shop, hospital, the atre; etc.) as,
She has gone to the baker's ( = baker's shop).
Tonight I am dining at my uncle's ( = uncle's house).
Can you tell me the way to St .Paul's ( ='St. Paul's church)?
I attend the Town High School but my cousin attends St. Xavier's.
He was educated ai St. Joseph's.
65. When you are in doubt whether to use a noun in the possessive case or with the
preposition of, remember that, as a general rule, the possessive case is used to denote
possession or ownership. Thus it is better to say 'the defeat of the enemy' than 'the
enemy's defeat', even though no doubt as to the meaning would arise.
Sometimes, however, a noun in the possessive case has a different meaning from a noun
used with the preposition of; as,
‘The Prime Minister's reception in Delhi’ means a reception held by the
Prime Minister in Delhi.
‘The reception of the Prime Minister in Delhi’ means the manner in which the people
welcomed him when he entered Delhi.
The phrase 'the love of a father' may mean either 'a father's love of his
child' or 'a child's love of his father'.
Nouns in Apposition
66. Read the following sentence:-
Rama, our captain, made fifty runs.
We see that Rama and our captain are one and the same person. The noun captain follows
the noun Rama simply to explain which Rama is referred to.
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When one noun follows another to describe it, the noun which follows is said to be in
apposition to the noun which comes before it.
[Apposition means placing near.]
A noun in apposition is in the same case as the noun which it explains.
In the above sentence the noun captain is in apposition to the noun Rama, and is in the
Nominative Case (because Rama is in the Nominative Case.)
Further examples:-
1. Kabir, the great reformer, was a weaver.
2. Yesterday I met your uncle, the doctor.
3. Have you seen Ganguli, the artist's drawings?
In sentence 1, the noun in apposition is in the Nominative Case.
In sentence 2, the noun in apposition is in the Accusative Case. [Why?]
In sentence 3, the noun in apposition is in the Genitive Case. [Why?]
CHAPTER 9
THE ADJECTIVE
67. Read the following sentences :-
1. Sita is a clever girl. (Girl of what kind1?)
2. I don't like that boy, (Which boy ?)
3. He gave me five mangoes. (How many mangoes?)
4. There is little time for preparation. (How much time ?)
In sentence 1, ‘clever’ shows what kind of girl Sita is; or, in other words, ‘clever’
describes the girl Sita.
In sentence 2, ‘that’ points out which boy is meant.
In sentence 3, ‘five’ shows how many mangoes he gave me.
In sentence 4, ‘little’ shows how much time there is for preparation.
A word used with a noun to describe or point out, the person, animal, place or thing
which the noun names, or to tell the number or quantity, is called an Adjective.
So we may define an Adjective as a word used with a noun to add something for its
meaning.
[Adjective means added to.]
68. Look at the following sentences:-
1. The lazy boy was punished.
2. The boy is lazy.
In sentence 1, the Adjective lazy is used along with the noun boy as an epithet or
attribute. It is, therefore, said to be used Attributively.
In sentence 2, the Adjective lazy is used along with the verb is,
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and forms part of the Predicate. It is, therefore, said to be used Predicatively.
Some Adjectives can be used only Predicatively; as,
She is afraid of ghosts.
I am quite well.
A work from S. CHAND & COMPANY LTD.
Kinds of Adjectives
Adjectives may be divided into the following classes:-
69. Adjectives of Quality (or Descriptive Adjective) show the kind or quality of a person
or thing; as,
Kolkata is a large city.
He is an honest man.
The foolish old crow tried to sing.
This is a Grammar of the English
(Adjectives formed from Proper Nouns (e.g., French wines, Turkish tobacco, Indian tea,
etc.) are sometimes called Proper Adjectives. They are generally classed with Adjectives
of Quality) language.
Adjectives of Quality answer the question : Of what kind ?
70. Adjectives of Quantity show how much of a thing is meant as,
I ate some rice.
He showed much patience.
He has little intelligence.
We have had enough exercise.
He has lost all his wealth.
You have no sense.
He did not eat any rice.
Take great care of your health.
He claimed his half share of the booty.
There has not been sufficient rain this year.
The whole sum was expended.
Adjectives of Quantity answer the question: How much?
71. Adjectives of Number (or Numeral Adjectives) show how many persons or things are
meant, or in what order a person or thing stands; as,
The hand has five fingers.
Few cats like cold water.
There are no pictures in this book.
I have taught you many things.
All men must die.
Here are some ripe mangoes.
Most boys like cricket.
There are several mistakes in your exercise.
Sunday is the first day of the week
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